Robots

Today I´m going to talk about robots

A robot is a mechanical or virtual agent, usually an electro-mechanical machine that is guided by a computer program or electronic circuitry. Robots can be autonomous or semi-autonomous and range from humanoids such as Honda's Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility (ASIMO) and TOSY's TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot (TOPIO) to industrial robots, collectively programmed 'swarm' robots, and even microscopic nano robots. By mimicking a lifelike appearance or automating movements, a robot may convey a sense of intelligence or thought of its own.
The branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing is robotics. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. These robots have also created a newer branch of robotics: Soft robotics.
From the time of ancient civilization there have been many accounts of user-configurable automated devices and even automata resembling animals and humans, designed primarily as entertainment. As mechanical techniques developed through the Industrial age, their appeared more practical applications such as automated machines, remote-control and wireless remote-control. Electronics evolved into the driving force of development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in Bristol, England in 1948. The first digital and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was named the Unimate. It was sold to General Motors in 1961 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die casting machines at the Inland Fisher Guide Plant in the West Trenton section of Ewing Township, New Jersey.
Robots have replaced humans in the assistance of performing those repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do due to size limitations, or even those such as in outer space or at the bottom of the sea where humans could not survive the extreme environments.
There are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising unemployment as they replace workers in some functions. The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibility of robot autonomy and potential repercussions has been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the future.

                                

Plastic Creation Videos

Here I leave you some videos about how plastics are created

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=6eCt0VDg-Kc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=T01i_vp2mJE

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=8CfL5xl2N1Q

Electricity

Today I´m going to talk about electricity

Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge. Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known effects, such as lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction and electrical current. In addition, electricity permits the creation and reception of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves.
In electricity, charges produce electromagnetic fields which act on other charges. Electricity occurs due to several types of physics:

• electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields.
• electric current: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically measured in amperes.
• electric field (see electrostatics): an especially simple type of electromagnetic field produced by an electric charge even when it is not moving (i.e., there is no electric current). The electric field produces a force on other charges in its vicinity. Moving charges additionally produce a magnetic field.
• electric potential: the capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric charge, typically measured in volts.
• electromagnets: electrical currents generate magnetic fields, and changing magnetic fields generate electrical currents.

In electrical engineering, electricity is used for:

• electric power where electric current is used to energise equipment;
• electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.

Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society. Electricity's extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society.

Plastics

Plastics are derived from organic products. The materials used in the production of plastics are natural products such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt and, of course, crude oil.

Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of compounds. To become useful, it must be processed.

The production of plastic begins with a distillation process in an oil refinery
The distillation process involves the separation of heavy crude oil into lighter groups called fractions. Each fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbon chains (chemical compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen), which differ in terms of the size and structure of their molecules. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial element for the production of plastics.

The two major processes used to produce plastics are called polymerisation and polycondensation, and they both require specific catalysts. In a polymerisation reactor, monomers like ethylene and propylene are linked together to form long polymers chains. Each polymer has its own properties, structure and size depending on the various types of basic monomers used.

There are many different types of plastics, and they can be grouped into two main polymer families:

• Thermoplastics (which soften on heating and then harden again on cooling)
• Thermosets (which never soften when they have been moulded)

Examples of Thermoplastics Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene – ABS Polycarbonate - PC Polyethylene - PE Polyethylene terephthalate - PET Poly(vinyl chloride) - PVC Poly(methyl methacrylate) - PMMA Polypropylene - PP Polystyrene - PS Expanded Polystyrene - EPS

Examples of Thermosets Epoxide (EP) Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) Polyurethane (PUR) Polytetrafluoroethylene - PTFE Unsaturated polyester resins (UP)

Tantalum

Today I´m going to talk about tantalum

Tantalum is a greyish silver, heavy, and very hard metal. When pure, it is ductile and can be drawn into fine wire, which can be used as a filament for evaporating metals such as aluminium. Tantalum is almost completely immune to chemical attack at temperatures below 150°C, and is attacked only by hydrofluoric acid, acidic solutions containing the fluoride ion, and free sulphur trioxide. The element has a melting point exceeded only by tungsten and rhenium.

Table: basic information about and classifications of tantalum.

Name: Tantalum Symbol: Ta Atomic number: 73 Atomic weight: 180.94788 (2) Standard state: solid at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7440-25-7

Group in periodic table: 5 Group name: (none) Period in periodic table: 6 Block in periodic table: d-block Colour: grey blue Classification: Metallic

 Small and large samples of tantalum wire like this, as well as foil, sheet, insulated wire, mesh and rod, can be purchased via their web catalogue from Advent Research Materials via their web catalogue.

Tantalum: historical information

Tantalum was discovered by Anders Ekeberg at 1802 in Sweden. Origin of name: from the Greek word "Tantalos" meaning "father of Niobe" (Greek mythology, (tantalum is closely related to niobium in the periodic table).

                                            

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Niobium was discovered in 1802 by Anders Gustaf Ekeberg, but many chemists thought niobium and tantalum were one and the same. Some felt that perhaps tantalum was an allotrope of niobium. Later, Rose, in 1844, and Marignac, in 1866, showed that niobic and tantalic acids were two different acids.

The first relatively pure tantalum was produced by von Bolton in 1907.

Tantalum: physical properties

• Melting point: 3290 [or 3017 °C (5463 °F)] K
• Boiling point: 5731 [or 5458 °C (9856 °F)] K
• Density of solid: 16650 kg m^-3

 

Tantalum: orbital properties

• Ground state electron configuration:  [Xe].4f¹⁴.5d³.6s²
• Shell structure:  2.8.18.32.11.2
• Term symbol:   ⁴F_3/2
• Pauling electronegativity: 1.5 (Pauling units)
•  First ionisation energy: 761 kJ mol^-1
•  Second ionisation energy: 1500 kJ mol^-1

 

Isolation

Isolation: isolation of tantalum appears to be complicated. Tantalum minerals usually contain both niobium and tantalum. Since they are so similar chemically, it is difficult to separate them. Tantalum can be extracted from the ores by first fusing the ore with alkali, and then extracting the resultant mixture into hydrofluoric acid, HF. Current methodology involves the separation of tantalum from these acid solutions using a liquid-liquid extraction technique. In this process tantalum salts are extracted into the ketone MIBK (methyl isobutyl ketone, 4-methyl pentan-2-one). The niobium remains in the HF solution.

After conversion to the oxide, metallic tantalum can be made by reduction with sodium or carbon. Electrolysis of molten fluorides is also used.

Cobalt

Today I´m going to talk about cobalt

Cobalt is a brittle, hard, silver-grey transition metal with magnetic properties similar to those of iron (ferromagnetic). Cobalt is present in meteorites. Ore deposits are found in Zaire, Morocco and Canada. The isotope cobalt-60 (⁶⁰Co) is an artificially produced isotope used as a source of γ rays (its high energy radiation is useful for sterilisation in medicine and of foods). Cobalt salts colour glass a beautiful deep blue colour. Cobalt compounds are important catalysts in a number of industrial processes. Cobalt is required in small amounts for life and is the only metal found in vitamins (cobalt is the critical component of vitamin B₁₂.

Table: basic information about and classifications of cobalt.

Name: Cobalt Symbol: Co Atomic number: 27 Atomic weight: 58.933195 (5) Standard state: solid at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7440-48-4

Group in periodic table: 9 Group name: (none) Period in periodic table: 4 Block in periodic table: d-block Colour: lustrous, metallic, greyish tinge Classification: Metallic

Cobalt: historical information

Cobalt was discovered by Georg Brandt at 1735 in Sweden. Origin of name: from the German word "kobald" meaning "goblin" or evil spirit.

                                    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Minerals containing cobalt were of value to the early civilisations of Egypt and Mesopotamia for colouring glass deep blue.

Cobalt was announced to be an element by Georg Brandt about 1739 (or possibly 1735). He had been trying to demonstrate that the blue colour of glass was because of a new element, cobalt, rather than bismuth, an element often found in the same locations as cobalt.

Cobalt: physical properties

• Melting point: 1768 [or 1495 °C (2723 °F)] K
• Boiling point: 3200 [or 2927 °C (5301 °F)] K
• Density of solid: 8900 kg m^-3

 

Cobalt: orbital properties

• Ground state electron configuration:  [Ar].3d⁷.4s²
• Shell structure:  2.8.15.2
• Term symbol:   ⁴F_9/2
• Pauling electronegativity: 1.88 (Pauling units)
•  First ionisation energy: 760.4 kJ mol^-1
•  Second ionisation energy: 1648 kJ mol^-1

 

Isolation

Isolation: it is not normally necessary to make cobalt in the laboratory as it is available readily commercially. Many ores contain cobalt but not many are of economic importance. These include the sulphides and arsenides linnaeite, Co₃S₄, cobaltite, CoAsS, and smaltite, CoAs₂. Industrially, however, it is normally produced as a byproduct from the produstion of copper, nickel, and lead.

Normally the ore is "roasted" to form a mixture of metals and metal oxides. Treatment with sulphuric acid leaves metallic copper as a residue and disolves out iron, cobalt, and nickel as the sulphates. Iron is obtained by precipitation with lime (CaO) while cobalt is produced as the hydroxide by precipitation with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)

2Co²⁺(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + 4OH^-(aq) + H₂O → 2Co(OH)₃(s) + NaCl(aq)

The trihydroxide Co(OH)₃ is heated to form the oxide and then reduced with carbon (as charcoal) to form cobalt metal.

2Co(OH)₃ (heat) → Co₂O₃ + 3H₂O

2Co₂O₃ + 3C → Co + 3CO₂